The United States and Saudi Arabia on Wednesday signed a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement, known as a 123 Agreement, that could allow the kingdom to enrich uranium for its own reactors. US Energy Secretary Chris Wright and Saudi Energy Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman signed the deal, which the US Department of Energy described as a “multibillion-dollar” partnership lasting decades. According to the Wall Street Journal, the agreement is valued at tens of billions of dollars over its 30-year term and would give American companies a central role in developing Saudi nuclear infrastructure while excluding foreign competitors.

US officials defended the agreement. Energy Secretary Chris Wright said the accords “uphold the highest standards of nuclear safety and nonproliferation, while relying on the world’s best nuclear technology and scientists, designed right here in the United States.” Secretary of State Marco Rubio, speaking in Manila, stated that “the US is not going to reach any agreement with any country in the world that leads to the risk of proliferation.” However, according to sources familiar with the matter, the deal does not require Saudi Arabia to adopt the “gold standard” of permanently renouncing uranium enrichment and spent-fuel reprocessing, nor does it include the International Atomic Energy Agency’s Additional Protocol for enhanced inspections and monitoring.

The omissions have alarmed nonproliferation experts and regional officials. Alexander Bollfrass, a nuclear expert at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, described the approach as “revolutionary,” noting that the US is willing to transfer highly sensitive technology without the highest available international safeguards. Israeli officials voiced concern: former defence ministers Avigdor Liberman and Benny Gantz warned the deal could spark a regional arms race, with Liberman writing that “a civilian nuclear program in Saudi Arabia will end with nuclear weapons and lead to a mad arms race across the entire Middle East.” US lawmakers from both parties have also expressed opposition, though the Republican-controlled Congress is unlikely to block implementation.

The agreement comes as the US and Israel are at war with Iran, a conflict that began in part over concerns about Tehran’s nuclear enrichment programme. Saudi Arabia has long insisted on its right to a civilian nuclear programme, and Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman has said the kingdom would seek nuclear weapons if Iran developed one. Unlike previous US administrations, the Trump administration did not make the deal contingent on Saudi normalisation of ties with Israel. The agreement will now be submitted to Congress for a 90-day review period under the Atomic Energy Act, after which it can take effect unless lawmakers pass a joint resolution of disapproval.